Freedom of Expression in Islam

One of the reasons for the flourishing of Islamic culture during the medieval period was its early emphasis on freedom of expression, first declared in the 7th century by Umar, the second Caliph, in the Rashidun Caliphate:

"Only decide on the basis of proof, be kind to the weak so that they can express themselves freely and without fear, deal on an equal footing with litigants by trying to reconcile them."

This is not the only example of such a declaration. Another can be found in a letter written by Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth Caliph, to Malik al-Ashtar, the governor of Egypt. In this letter, the Caliph advises his governor on the proper way to deal with the poor masses:

"Out of your hours of work, fix a time for the complainants and for those who want to approach you with their grievances. During this time you should do no other work but hear them and pay attention to their complaints and grievances. For this purpose you must arrange public audience for them during this audience, for the sake of Allah, treat them with kindness, courtesy, and respect. Do not let your army and police be in the audience hall at such times so that those who have grievances against your regime may speak to you freely, unreservedly, and without fear."

It is interesting that in this exhortation the Caliph implies that there are practical benefits as well as religious tenets to be considered. The governor should treat the masses with respect "for the sake of Allah," but the Caliph also implies that allowing free speech will improve the governor's rule. It is certainly not a religious doctrine that a ruler must listen to grievances against him, so there must be some political benefit to such a practice. One can surmise that people who are allowed to speak their minds freely make better subjects. If the people feel that they have a genuine dialogue with the ruler, they will more easily accept the conditions of his governance. They will not harbor resentment, and so will spend their energy in more productive pursuits than rebellion or political agitation. Repression is counterproductive in that it saps human energy. Unhappy, repressed people do not work as productively and they will seek an outlet for their frustrations. They will tend towards activities which threaten the status quo of the rule, and the ruler will feel forced to enact even greater repressions. It is a vicious cycle which need not exist.

Citizens of the Rashidun Caliphate were free to criticize the Caliphs because the head of state was just as bound by the rule of law as the citizens.

Freedom of speech was again declared during the Abbasid Caliphate by al-Hashimi, cousin to Caliph al-Ma'mum. He wrote this in a letter to a non-Muslim whom he was attempting to convert:

"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please, appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "there is no compulsion in religion" (Quran 2:256) .

This emphasis on the arbitration of Reason and the willingness to accept whatever conclusions reason may reach bears a strong resemblance to Socrates' attitude toward dialogue. The idea is that the true philosopher does not enter the dialogue with any preconceived notions which he holds above rational inquiry. All opinions offered on the subject are subject to discussion, argument, analysis, etc. If Reason is the only arbitrator (as opposed to emotion or rigid belief), then, by virtue of their shared reason, the interlocutors will reach a rational conclusion among themselves.

The idea of free rational inquiry extends into contemporary times as the concept of academic freedom. According to George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, the "idea of academic freedom" in universitites was in fact "modeled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah system circa 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately-planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II, founded by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1224.

Makdisi and Goddard have a point. Islamic and Western/European cultures were not always so sundered as they are now. There was once a free flow of information and learning between them. For example, Greece and Hellenistic Rome gave Plato to Islam, and Islam later reintroduced translations of Aristotle to Europe. Aristotle had been largely unknown in Europe until that point. The concept of freedom of expression exemplifies the kind of philosophic interchange which once took place and which is still possible.